Soldering A Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

Soldering a PCB is probably the most common soldering task an electronics hobbyist will perform. The basic techniques are fairly easy to grasp but it is a skill that will take a little practice to master. The best way to practice is to buy a simple electronics kit or assemble a simple circuit (such as an LED chaser) on a perf-board. Don't buy that expensive kit or dive into a huge project after only soldering a few joints.

Soldering components onto a PCB involves preparing the surface, placing the components, and then soldering the joint.

Step 1: Surface Preparation:

A clean surface is very important if you want a strong, low resistance solder joint. All surfaces to be soldered should be cleaned well. 3M Scotch Brite pads purchased from the home improvement, industrial supply store or automotive body shop are a good choice as they will quickly remove surface tarnish but will not abrade the PCB material. Note that you will want industrial pads and not the kitchen cleaning pads impregnated with cleaner/soap. If you have particularly tough deposits on your board, then a fine grade of steel wool is acceptable but be very cautious on boards with tight tolerances as the fine steel shavings can lodge between pads and in holes.Once you have cleaned the board down to shiny copper you can use a solvent such as acetone to clean any bits of the cleaning pad that may remain and to remove chemical contamination from the surface of the board. Methyl hydrate is another good solvent and a bit less stinky then acetone. Be aware that both these solvents can remove ink, so if your board is silk screened, test the chemicals first before hosing down the entire board.
A few blasts with compressed air will dry out the board and remove any junk that may have built up in the holes.
It also never hurts to give the component leads a quick wipe down as well, to remove glue or tarnish that may have built up over time.

Step 2: Component Placement

After the component and board have been cleaned, you are ready to place the components onto the board. Unless your circuit is simple and only contains a few components, you will probably not be placing all the components onto the board and soldering them at once. Most likely you will be soldering a few components at a time before turning the board over and placing more. In general it is best to start with the smallest and flattest components (resistors, ICs, signal diodes, etc.) and then work up to the larger components (capacitors, power transistors, transformers) after the small parts are done. This keeps the board relatively flat, making it more stable during soldering. It is also best to save sensitive components (MOSFETs, non-socketed ICs) until the end to lessen the chance of damaging them during assembly of the rest of the circuit.Bend the leads as necessary and insert the component through the proper holes on the board. To hold the part in place while you are soldering, you may want to bend the leads on the bottom of the board at a 45 degree angle. This works well for parts with long leads such as resistors. Components with short leads such as IC sockets can be held in place with a little masking tape or you can bend the leads down to clamp onto the PC board pads.
In the image below, a resistor is ready to solder and is held in place by slightly bent leads.

Step 3: Apply Heat

Apply a very small amount of solder to the tip of the iron. This helps conduct the heat to the component and board, but it is not the solder that will make up the joint. To heat the joint you will lay the tip of the iron so that it rests against both the component lead and the board. It is critical that you heat the lead and the board, otherwise the solder will simply pool and refuse to stick to the unheated item. The small amount of solder you applied to the tip before heating the joint will help make contact between the board and the lead. It normally takes a second or two to get the joint hot enough to solder, but larger components and thicker pads/traces will absorb more heat and can increase this time.If you see the area under the pad starting to bubble, stop heating and remove the soldering iron because you are overheating the pad and it is in danger of lifting. Let it cool, then carefully heat it again for much less time.

Step 4: Apply Solder To The Joint

Once the component lead and solder pad has heated up, you are ready to apply solder. Touch the tip of the strand of solder to the component lead and solder pad, but not the tip of the iron. If everything is hot enough, the solder should flow freely around the lead and pad. You will see the flux melt liquify as well, bubble around the joint (this is part of its cleaning action), flow out and release smoke. Continue to add solder to the joint until the pad is completely coated and the solder forms a small mound with slightly concave sides. If it starts to ball up, you have used too much solder or the pad on the board is not hot enough.

Once the surface of the pad is completely coated, you can stop adding solder and remove the soldering iron (in that order). Don't move the joint for a few seconds as the solder needs time to cool and resolidify. If you do move the joint, you will get what's called a "cold joint". This is recognized by it's characteristic dull and grainy appearance. Many cold joints can be fixed by reheating and applying a small amount of solder, then being allowed to cool without being disturbed.

Step 5: Inspect The Joint and Cleanup

Once the joint is made you should inspect it. Check for cold joints (described a little above and at length below), shorts with adjacent pads or poor flow. If the joint checks out, move on to the next. To trim the lead, use a small set of side cutters and cut at the top of the solder joint.

After you have made all the solder joints, it is good practice to clean all the excess flux residue from the board. Some fluxes are hydroscopic (they absorb water) and can slowly absorb enough water to become slightly conductive. This can be a significant issue in a hostile environment such as an automotive application. Most fluxes will clean up easily using methyl hydrate and a rag but some will require a stronger solvent. Use the appropriate solvent to remove the flux, then blow the board dry with compressed air.

How To Solder?

Tinning The Soldering Tip

Before use, a new soldering tip, or one that is very dirty, must be tinned. "Tinning" is the process of coating a soldering tip with a thin coat of solder. This aids in heat transfer between the tip and the component you are soldering, and also gives the solder a base from which to flow from.

Step 1: Warm Up The Iron

Warm up the soldering iron or gun thoroughly. Make sure that it has fully come to temperature because you are about to melt a lot of solder on it. This is especially important if the iron is new because it may have been packed with some kind of coating to prevent corrosion.

Step 2: Prepare A Little Space

While the soldering iron is warming up, prepare a little space to work. Moisten a little sponge and place it in the base of your soldering iron stand or in a dish close by. Lay down a piece of cardboard in case you drip solder (you probably will) and make sure you have room to work comfortably.

Step 3: Thoroughly Coat The Tip In Solder

Thoroughly coat the soldering tip in solder. It is very important to cover the entire tip. You will use a considerable amount of solder during this process and it will drip, so be ready. If you leave any part of the tip uncovered it will tend to collect flux residue and will not conduct heat very well, so run the solder up and down the tip and completely around it to totally cover it in molten solder.

Step 4: Clean The Soldering Tip

After you are certain that the tip is totally coated in solder, wipe the tip off on the wet sponge to remove all the flux residue. Do this immediately so there is no time for the flux to dry out and solidify.

Step 5: You're Done!

You have just tinned your soldering tip. This must be done anytime you replace the tip or clean it so that the iron maintains good heat transfer.

EFFECT OF A LOAD

When a load device is connected across the secondary winding of a transformer, current flows through the secondary and the load. The magnetic field produced by the current in the secondary interacts with the magnetic field produced by the current in the primary. This interaction results from the mutual inductance between the primary and secondary windings.
MUTUAL FLUX
The total flux in the core of the transformer is common to both the primary and secondary windings. It is also the means by which energy is transferred from the primary winding to the secondary winding. Since this flux links both windings, it is called MUTUAL FLUX. The inductance which produces this flux is also common to both windings and is called mutual inductance.
Figure 5-11 shows the flux produced by the currents in the primary and secondary windings of a transformer when source current is flowing in the primary winding.
Figure 5-11. - Simple transformer indicating primary- and secondary-winding flux relationship.

When a load resistance is connected to the secondary winding, the voltage induced into the secondary winding causes current to flow in the secondary winding. This current produces a flux field about the secondary (shown as broken lines) which is in opposition to the flux field about the primary (Lenz's law). Thus, the flux about the secondary cancels some of the flux about the primary. With less flux surrounding the primary, the counter emf is reduced and more current is drawn from the source. The additional current in the primary generates more lines of flux, nearly reestablishing the original number of total flux lines.

TURNS AND CURRENT RATIOS
The number of flux lines developed in a core is proportional to the magnetizing force (IN AMPERE-TURNS) of the primary and secondary windings.
The ampere-turn (I X N) is a measure of magnetomotive force; it is defined as the magnetomotive force developed by one ampere of current flowing in a coil of one turn. The flux which exists in the core of a transformer surrounds both the primary and secondary windings. Since the flux is the same for both windings, the ampere-turns in both the primary and secondary windings must be the same.
Therefore:

By dividing both sides of the equation by I_pN _s, you obtain:

Notice the equations show the current ratio to be the inverse of the turns ratio and the voltage ratio. This means, a transformer having less turns in the secondary than in the primary would step down the voltage, but would step up the current. Example: A transformer has a 6:1 voltage ratio.
Find the current in the secondary if the current in the primary is 200 milliamperes.

The above example points out that although the voltage across the secondary is one-sixth the voltage across the primary, the current in the secondary is six times the current in the primary.
The above equations can be looked at from another point of view.
The expression
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is called the transformer TURNS RATIO and may be expressed as a single factor. Remember, the turns ratio indicates the amount by which the transformer increases or decreases the voltage applied to the primary. For example, if the secondary of a transformer has two times as many turns as the primary, the voltage induced into the secondary will be two times the voltage across the primary. If the secondary has one-half as many turns as the primary, the voltage across the secondary will be one-half the voltage across the primary. However, the turns ratio and the current ratio of a transformer have an inverse relationship. Thus, a 1:2 step-up transformer will have one-half the current in the secondary as in the primary. A 2:1 step-down transformer will have twice the current in the secondary as in the primary.
Example: A transformer with a turns ratio of 1:12 has 3 amperes of current in the secondary. What is the value of current in the primary?

PRODUCING A COUNTER EMF

When an alternating current flows through a primary winding, a magnetic field is established around the winding. As the lines of flux expand outward, relative motion is present, and a counter emf is induced in the winding. This is the same counter emf that you learned about in the chapter on inductors. Flux leaves the primary at the north pole and enters the primary at the south pole. The counter emf induced in the primary has a polarity that opposes the applied voltage, thus opposing the flow of current in the primary. It is the counter emf that limits exciting current to a very low value.
Q.9 What is meant by "exciting current" in a transformer?
INDUCING A VOLTAGE IN THE SECONDARY
To visualize how a voltage is induced into the secondary winding of a transformer, again refer to figure 5-8. As the exciting current flows through the primary, magnetic lines of force are generated.
During the time current is increasing in the primary, magnetic lines of force expand outward from the primary and cut the secondary. As you remember, a voltage is induced into a coil when magnetic lines cut across it. Therefore, the voltage across the primary causes a voltage to be induced across the secondary.
Q.10 What is the name of the emf generated in the primary that opposes the flow of current in the primary?
Q.11 What causes a voltage to be developed across the secondary winding of a transformer?

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PHASE RELATIONSHIP
The secondary voltage of a simple transformer may be either in phase or out of phase with the primary voltage. This depends on the direction in which the windings are wound and the arrangement of the connections to the external circuit (load). Simply, this means that the two voltages may rise and fall together or one may rise while the other is falling.
Transformers in which the secondary voltage is in phase with the primary are referred to as LIKE-WOUND transformers, while those in which the voltages are 180 degrees out of phase are called UNLIKE-WOUND transformers.
Dots are used to indicate points on a transformer schematic symbol that have the same instantaneous polarity (points that are in phase).
The use of phase-indicating dots is illustrated in figure 5-9. In part (A) of the figure, both the primary and secondary windings are wound from top to bottom in a clockwise direction, as viewed from above the windings. When constructed in this manner, the top lead of the primary and the top lead of the secondary have the SAME polarity. This is indicated by the dots on the transformer symbol. A lack of phasing dots indicates a reversal of polarity.
Figure 5-9. - Instantaneous polarity depends on direction of winding.

Part (B) of the figure illustrates a transformer in which the primary and secondary are wound in opposite directions. As viewed from above the windings, the primary is wound in a clockwise direction from top to bottom, while the secondary is wound in a counterclockwise direction. Notice that the top leads of the primary and secondary have OPPOSITE polarities. This is indicated by the dots being placed on opposite ends of the transformer symbol. Thus, the polarity of the voltage at the terminals of the secondary of a transformer depends on the direction in which the secondary is wound with respect to the primary.
Q.12 What is the phase relationship between the voltage induced in the secondary of an unlike-wound transformer and the counter emf of the primary winding?
Q.13 Draw dots on the below symbol to indicate the phasing of the transformer.

TRANSFORMER WINDINGS

As stated above, the transformer consists of two coils called WINDINGS which are wrapped around a core. The transformer operates when a source of ac voltage is connected to one of the windings and a load device is connected to the other. The winding that is connected to the source is called the PRIMARY WINDING. The winding that is connected to the load is called the SECONDARY WINDING. (Note: In this chapter the terms "primary winding" and "primary" are used interchangeably; the term: "secondary winding" and "secondary" are also used interchangeably.)
Figure 5-5 shows an exploded view of a shell-type transformer. The primary is wound in layers directly on a rectangular cardboard form.
Figure 5-5. - Exploded view of shell-type transformer construction.

In the transformer shown in the cutaway view in figure 5-6, the primary consists of many turns of relatively small wire. The wire is coated with varnish so that each turn of the winding is insulated from every other turn. In a transformer designed for high-voltage applications, sheets of insulating material, such as paper, are placed between the layers of windings to provide additional insulation.

Figure 5-6. - Cutaway view of shell-type core with windings.

When the primary winding is completely wound, it is wrapped in insulating paper or cloth. The secondary winding is then wound on top of the primary winding. After the secondary winding is complete, it too is covered with insulating paper. Next, the E and I sections of the iron core are inserted into and around the windings as shown.
The leads from the windings are normally brought out through a hole in the enclosure of the transformer. Sometimes, terminals may be provided on the enclosure for connections to the windings. The figure shows four leads, two from the primary and two from the secondary. These leads are to be connected to the source and load, respectively.

BASIC OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER

In its most basic form a transformer consists of:

• A primary coil or winding.
• A secondary coil or winding.
• A core that supports the coils or windings.

Refer to the transformer circuit in figure 5-1 as you read the following explanation: The primary winding is connected to a 60 hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow through the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and secondary windings.
Figure 5-1. - Basic transformer action.

Q.2 What are, the three basic parts of a transformer?

THE COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER
Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some cases the coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core material is air and the transformer is called an AIR-CORE TRANSFORMER. Transformers used at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz and 400 hertz, require a core of low-reluctance magnetic material, usually iron. This type of transformer is called an IRON-CORE TRANSFORMER. Most power transformers are of the iron-core type. The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:

• The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.
• The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.
• The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and delivers it to the load.
• The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and mechanical damage.

CORE CHARACTERISTICS
The composition of a transformer core depends on such factors as voltage, current, and frequency. Size limitations and construction costs are also factors to be considered. Commonly used core materials are air, soft iron, and steel. Each of these materials is suitable for particular applications and unsuitable for others. Generally, air-core transformers are used when the voltage source has a high frequency (above 20 kHz). Iron-core transformers are usually used when the source frequency is low (below 20 kHz). A soft-iron-core transformer is very useful where the transformer must be physically small, yet efficient. The iron-core transformer provides better power transfer than does the air-core transformer. A transformer whose core is constructed of laminated sheets of steel dissipates heat readily; thus it provides for the efficient transfer of power. The majority of transformers you will encounter in Navy equipment contain laminated-steel cores. These steel laminations (see figure 5-2) are insulated with a nonconducting material, such as varnish, and then formed into a core. It takes about 50 such laminations to make a core an inch thick. The purpose of the laminations is to reduce certain losses which will be discussed later in this chapter. An important point to remember is that the most efficient transformer core is one that offers the best path for the most lines of flux with the least loss in magnetic and electrical energy.
Figure 5-2. - Hollow-core construction.

SERIES RLC CIRCUITS

The principles and formulas that have been presented in this chapter are used in all ac circuits. The examples given have been series circuits.
This section of the chapter will not present any new material, but will be an example of using all the principles presented so far. You should follow each example problem step by step to see how each formula used depends upon the information determined in earlier steps. When an example calls for solving for square root, you can practice using the square-root table by looking up the values given.
The example series RLC circuit shown in figure 4-11 will be used to solve for X_L, X_C, X, Z, I_T, true power, reactive power, apparent power, and power factor.
The values solved for will be rounded off to the nearest whole number.
First solve for X_L and X_C.

Figure 4-11. - Example series RLC circuit

Now solve for X

Use the value of X to solve for Z.

This value of Z can be used to solve for total current (I_T ).

Since current is equal in all parts of a series circuit, the value of I_T can be used to solve for the various values of power.

The power factor can now be found using either apparent power and true power or resistance and impedance. The mathematics in this example is easier if you use impedance and resistance.

PARALLEL RLC CIRCUITS
When dealing with a parallel ac circuit, you will find that the concepts presented in this chapter for series ac circuits still apply. There is one major difference between a series circuit and a parallel circuit that must be considered. The difference is that current is the same in all parts of a series circuit, whereas voltage is the same across all branches of a parallel circuit. Because of this difference, the total impedance of a parallel circuit must be computed on the basis of the current in the circuit.
You should remember that in the series RLC circuit the following three formulas were used to find reactance, impedance, and power factor:

When working with a parallel circuit you must use the following formulas instead:

NOTE: If no value for E is given in a circuit, any value of E can be assumed to find the values of I_L, I_C, I_X, I_R, and I_Z. The same value of voltage is then used to find impedance.
For example, find the value of Z in the circuit shown in figure 4-12.

The first step in solving for Z is to calculate the individual branch currents.

Figure 4-12. - Parallel RLC circuit.

Using the values for I_R, I_L, and I_C, solve for I_X and I_Z.

Using this value of I_Z, solve for Z.

If the value for E were not given and you were asked to solve for Z, any value of E could be assumed. If, in the example problem above, you assume a value of 50 volts for E, the solution would be:

First solve for the values of current in the same manner as before.

Solve for I_X and I_Z.

Solve for Z.

When the voltage is given, you can use the values of currents, I _R, I_X, and I_Z, to calculate for the true power, reactive power, apparent power, and power factor. For the circuit shown in figure 4-12, the calculations would be as follows.
To find true power,

To find reactive power, first find the value of reactance (X).

To find apparent power,

The power factor in a parallel circuit is found by either of the following methods.

Power Factor

The POWER FACTOR is a number (represented as a decimal or a percentage) that represents the portion of the apparent power dissipated in a circuit.
If you are familiar with trigonometry, the easiest way to find the power factor is to find the cosine of the phase angle q. The cosine of the phase angle is equal to the power factor.
You do not need to use trigonometry to find the power factor. Since the power dissipated in a circuit is true power, then:

If true power and apparent power are known you can use the formula shown above.
Going one step further, another formula for power factor can be developed. By substituting the equations for true power and apparent power in the formula for power factor, you get:

Since current in a series circuit is the same in all parts of the circuit, I_Requals I_Z. Therefore, in a series circuit,

For example, to compute the power factor for the series circuit shown in figure 4-10, any of the above methods may be used.

Another method:

If you are familiar with trigonometry you can use it to solve for angle

q and the power factor by referring to the tables in appendices V and VI.

NOTE: As stated earlier the power factor can be expressed as a decimal or percentage. In this example the decimal number .6 could also be expressed as 60%.

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

You know that in a direct current circuit the power is equal to the voltage times the current, or P = E X I. If a voltage of 100 volts applied to a circuit produces a current of 10 amperes, the power is 1000 watts. This is also true in an ac circuit when the current and voltage are in phase; that is, when the circuit is effectively resistive. But, if the ac circuit contains reactance, the current will lead or lag the voltage by a certain amount (the phase angle). When the current is out of phase with the voltage, the power indicated by the product of the applied voltage and the total current gives only what is known as the APPARENT POWER. The TRUE POWER depends upon the phase angle between the current and voltage. The symbol for phase angle is q (Theta).
When an alternating voltage is impressed across a capacitor, power is taken from the source and stored in the capacitor as the voltage increases from zero to its maximum value. Then, as the impressed voltage decreases from its maximum value to zero, the capacitor discharges and returns the power to the source. Likewise, as the current through an inductor increases from its zero value to its maximum value the field around the inductor builds up to a maximum, and when the current decreases from maximum to zero the field collapses and returns the power to the source. You can see therefore that no power is used up in either case, since the power alternately flows to and from the source. This power that is returned to the source by the reactive components in the circuit is called REACTIVE POWER.
In a purely resistive circuit all of the power is consumed and none is returned to the source; in a purely reactive circuit no power is consumed and all of the power is returned to the source. It follows that in a circuit which contains both resistance and reactance there must be some power dissipated in the resistance as well as some returned to the source by the reactance. In figure 4-9 you can see the relationship between the voltage, the current, and the power in such a circuit. The part of the power curve which is shown below the horizontal reference line is the result of multiplying a positive instantaneous value of current by a negative instantaneous value of the voltage, or vice versa. As you know, the product obtained by multiplying a positive value by a negative value will be negative. Therefore the power at that instant must be considered as negative power. In other words, during this time the reactance was returning power to the source.
Figure 4-9. - Instantaneous power when current and voltage are out of phase.

The instantaneous power in the circuit is equal to the product of the applied voltage and current through the circuit. When the voltage and current are of the same polarity they are acting together and taking power from the source. When the polarities are unlike they are acting in opposition and power is being returned to the source. Briefly then, in an ac circuit which contains reactance as well as resistance, the apparent power is reduced by the power returned to the source, so that in such a circuit the net power, or true power, is always less than the apparent power.

Calculating True Power in AC Circuits
As mentioned before, the true power of a circuit is the power actually used in the circuit. This power, measured in watts, is the power associated with the total resistance in the circuit. To calculate true power, the voltage and current associated with the resistance must be used. Since the voltage drop across the resistance is equal to the resistance multiplied by the current through the resistance, true power can be calculated by the formula:

For example, find the true power of the circuit shown in figure 4-10.
Figure 4-10. - Example circuit for determining power.

Since the current in a series circuit is the same in all parts of the circuit: